Advanced European History Unit 6

The Age of Reason:
The Enlightenment

1690 – 1789. An intellectual movement that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of life, including politics, economics, and social interactions.

Est. Reading Time: 18 mins Level: Advanced Placement / Undergraduate Click underlined words for help

I. The Spirit of the Age

Key Term: Philosophe

The French word for "philosopher." These were the intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment. They were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning.

The Enlightenment was not just a collection of ideas, but a mood. It was fueled by the success of the Scientific Revolution. If Newton could discover the natural laws of physics, surely the philosophes could discover the natural laws of human society.

The Five Core Beliefs

  • Reason: Truth can be discovered through logic. They rejected intolerance and prejudice.
  • Nature: What is natural is also good and reasonable.
  • Happiness: Urged people to seek well-being on earth, rejecting the medieval notion that misery in life was necessary for salvation.
  • Progress: Society and humankind can improve.
  • Liberty: Called for the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights.

II. The Great Philosophers

"I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." — Evelyn Beatrice Hall (summarizing Voltaire)

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Baron de Montesquieu

1689–1755

A French lawyer and aristocrat. In The Spirit of Laws (1748), he argued that despotism could be avoided if political power was divided and shared by a variety of classes.

Key Idea: Separation of Powers (Checks and Balances).
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Voltaire

1694–1778

The most famous philosophe. He wrote over 70 books of political satire. He fought against intolerance, censorship, and religious fanaticism.

Key Idea: Religious Tolerance and Freedom of Speech.
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Denis Diderot

1713–1784

He edited the Encyclopedia, a massive collection of articles aimed at "changing the general way of thinking."

Key Idea: Democratization of Knowledge.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

1712–1778

A controversial figure who argued that civilization corrupted people's natural goodness. "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."

Key Idea: The General Will (Direct Democracy).

III. Social Life of the Enlightenment

The Salons

In Paris, wealthy women held regular social gatherings in their mansions. At these events, philosophers, writers, artists, and scientists met to discuss ideas. These gatherings were called salons.

Madame Geoffrin

The most influential salon hostess. She helped finance Diderot's Encyclopedia and corresponded with the King of Sweden and Catherine the Great.

A Reading Revolution

The production and consumption of books grew significantly. Literacy rates rose. The "Public Sphere" emerged—an idealized space where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics.

Coffeehouses

Became centers of public discussion, allowing men of different classes to mix and debate the news.

Artistic Style: Rococo

Soft, pastel, ornate art style favored by elite women and the salons, contrasting with the heavier Baroque style.

IV. Enlightened Absolutism

Many philosophes believed that the best hope for reform was a benevolent monarch. Some rulers embraced these ideas, becoming Enlightened Despots.

Frederick the Great

Prussia

"First servant of the state." He granted religious freedom, reduced censorship, and improved education. However, he kept the rigid social structure intact.

Joseph II

Austria

The most radical reformer. He abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash. His reforms were undone after his death.

Catherine the Great

Russia

Drafted a new law code based on Montesquieu. However, after a massive peasant uprising (Pugachev's Rebellion), she clamped down on the peasantry.

Check Your Understanding

Test your knowledge of the Enlightenment.